La relación entre las emociones y las estrategias de afrontamiento ante la reprobación en estudiantes universitarios / The relationship between emotions and coping strategies in university students after a failing grade

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar las diferencias (hombres y mujeres) y la relación entre emociones y las estrategias de afrontamiento en estudiantes universitarios cuando reprueban un examen al inicio del ciclo escolar. Método: Estudio no experimental de tipo transversal con múltiples variables continuas. Participaron 1,774 universitarios mexicanos (54 % mujeres y 46 % hombres), media de edad 20.72 (DE = 2.27). Se utilizaron dos instrumentos, a saber, Escala de emociones cuando repruebas: desagrado, culpa, vergüenza, tristeza, miedo, frustración, enojo, angustia, indiferencia (α = .94); y Estrategias de afrontamiento cuando repruebas: gritar, culpar a otro, reflexionar, reprobar el examen, buscar asesoría, evitar hablar del tema, evitar pensar en eso, fingir estar bien, estar en redes sociales, escuchar música, salir con amigos, salir solo(a), contarle a mi familia (α = .88). Resultados: Se obtuvieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre mujeres y hombres en todos los factores de la intensidad de las emociones cuando repruebas. En cuanto a las estrategias de afrontamiento más utilizadas tanto para las mujeres (M = 2.96, DE = 0.66) como en los hombres (M = 2.69, DE = 0.67) fueron las Asertivas y de autoconstructivas y las menos las Agresivo-defensivas; en cuanto a las estrategias de Evasión si bien no mostraron diferencias entre hombres (M = 2.00; DE = 0.78) y mujeres (M = 2.11; DE = 0.84), sin embargo, en las correlaciones de la muestra en general fueron las que tuvieron las puntuaciones más altas con las emociones (r = .53**), seguidas de las Búsqueda de soluciones (r = .38**) y Asertivas y autocríticas (r = .42**). Al realizar los análisis contrastados entre mujeres (r = 50**) hombres (r = .56**) nuevamente las estrategias de Evasión fueron las que más correlacionaron con los factores emocionales (r = .50**). Conclusiones: Si bien se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre hombres y mujeres en la intensidad de las emociones, y fueron ellas quienes reportaron una mayor intensidad, no se encontraron diferencias en las estrategias de afrontamiento agresivo-defensivas, evasión y búsqueda de apoyo; el solicitar ayuda es un indicativo de que son capaces de reconocer que tienen un problema que sobrepasa sus habilidades en ese momento. Conocer qué emociones experimentan y qué estrategias de afrontamiento utilizan los universitarios cuando reprueban, proporciona al personal encargado de apoyarlos el poder implementar acciones que les ayuden a afianzar y darle continuidad a su trayectoria académica. Es importante apoyar a los estudiantes, ya que las estrategias de afrontamiento que mostraron mayores correlaciones con las emociones fueron las de evasión, lo cual puede traerles consecuencias negativas como el pasar de reprobar un examen a reprobar la asignatura.

Abstract Objective: To identify the differences (in men and women) and the relationship between emotions and coping strategies in university students when they fail an exam at the beginning of the school year. Method: The study was non-experimental and cross-sectional with multiple continuous variables, in which 1,774 Mexican university students participated (54 % women and 46 % men) of mean age 20.72 years (SD = 2.27). Two tools were used. The first one was the "Emotions scale when you fail": displeasure, guilt, shame, sadness, fear, frustration, anger, anguish, and indifference (α = 0.94), and the second tool was "Coping strategies when you fail": yelling, blaming someone else, reflecting, failing the exam, seeking advice, avoiding talking about it, avoiding thinking about it, pretending to be fine, using social media, listening to music, hanging out with friends, going out alone, talking to family (α = 0.88). Results: In the tool "Emotions scale when you fail," significant differences were found between men and women in every factor and its intensity. The most commonly used coping strategies for women (M = 2.96, SD = 0.66) and men (M = 2.69, SD = 0.67) were assertive and self-constructive, and the least commonly used were aggressive-defensive. As for the evasion strategies, although they did not show differences between men (M = 2.00, SD = 0.78) and women (M = 2.11; SD = 0.84) in the general sample correlations, those strategies were the ones that had the highest scores with emotions (r = 0.53 **), followed by the search for solutions (r = 0.38 **) and assertive and self-critical (r = 0.42 **). When performing the contrast analysis among women (r = 50 **) and men (r = 0.56 **), evasion strategies were the ones that showed the highest correlation with emotional factors (r = 0.50 **). Conclusions: Although statistically significant differences were found between men and women in emotion intensity, women being the ones that showed greater intensity, no differences were found in aggressive-defensive coping strategies, evasion, and support seeking. Requesting help is an indicator that women are (1) able to recognize that they have a problem that is currently beyond their abilities to solve independently and (2) able to ask for help in order to solve problems. Knowing which emotions university students experience and the coping strategies they use when they fail, gives the support staff in charge a chance to implement actions that help strengthen them and move forward with their academic journey. It is important to support students, because the coping strategies that showed the highest correlation with emotions were the evasion strategies, which can have further negative consequences such as going from failing an exam to failing the subject.

Propiedades Psicométricas de la Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes / Psychometric Properties of the Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents

Resumen Objetivo: Validar la Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes, la cual incluye tres factores: venganza (4 ítems, por ej., "Haré sufrir a la otra persona"), pensamientos de insulto o peyorativos (5 ítems, por ej., "Es un estúpido") y pensamientos de control (10 ítems, por ej., "Tendré paciencia"). Método: La muestra fue de 522 adolescentes mexicanos de escuela pública (M de edad = 15,92, DE =0,90); 213 hombres y 309 mujeres seleccionados de forma no aleatoria. Los instrumentos fueron: la Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes, el Inventario Multicultural de Expresión de la Cólera y la Hostilidad (ML-STAXI) para Adolescentes Mexicanos y la Escala de Expresión del Enojo con Agresión Física. El diseño del estudio fue instrumental. Resultados: Se encontró, por medio de análisis factorial confirmatorio que el modelo de tres factores tuvo buen ajuste (CFI = .912, SRMR = .046, RMSEA = .076). La confiabilidad (Alfa de Cronbach) fue aceptable: .78, .86 y .92, respectivamente. La validez de constructo fue satisfactoria, dado que la escala fue útil para diferenciar a personas de alto y bajo puntaje en variables de enojo, control del enojo, expresión del enojo y agresión física hacia las personas y hacia los objetos. Hubo leve diferencia por sexo en una de las tres escalas, donde las mujeres tuvieron más pensamientos peyorativos que los hombres. Conclusión: La Escala de Pensamientos de Enojo para Adolescentes es una opción confiable y con validez de constructo. Representa un punto de partida para la investigación, evaluación y tratamiento de adolescentes con problemas en el control del enojo.

Abstract Objective: The goal of the study was to validate an Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents, which has three factors: revenge (4 items, e.g., "I will make the other person suffer"), insulting or pejorative thoughts (5 items, e.g., "S/he is stupid"), and thoughts of control (10 items, e.g., "I will be patient"). Method: The sample had 522 adolescents (M age = 15.92, SD = 0.90); 213 men, and 309 women from a public school; they were recruited through intentional non-random sampling. The participants answered three instruments: The Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents, The Multicultural Inventory of Anger and Hostility (ML-STAXI) for Mexican Adolescents, and the Scale of Anger Expression with Physical Aggression. The design of the study is instrumental. Results: It was found, through confirmatory factor analysis and modification indexes, that the 3-factor model showed good fit (CFI = .912, SRMR = .046, RMSEA = .076). The reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) was acceptable: .78, .86, and .92, respectively. Construct validity was satisfactory, since the scale was useful to distinguish between individuals with high and low scores in variables of anger, anger control, anger expression, and physical aggression toward people and toward objects. A gender difference was found in one of the three scales; women had more pejorative thoughts than men. Conclusion: The Angry Thoughts Scale for Adolescents is a reliable option with construct validity. It represents a starting point for research, assessment, and treatment of adolescents with anger problems.

Relationship between Assertiveness, Academic Performance and Anxiety in a Sample of Mexican Students in Secondary Education / Relação entre Assertividade, Desempenho Acadêmico e Ansiedade numa Amostra de Estudantes Mexicanos de Secundária / Relación entre asertividad, rendimiento académico y ansiedad en una muestra de estudiantes mexicanos de secundaria

Abstract Social skills in their most advanced form are aimed at solving any immediate problems of a situation while minimizing the likelihood of future problems. This is also known as assertiveness, a variable that can be related to academic performance and the level of anxiety in adolescents. This research is descriptive and correlational with the aim of knowing the relationship between level of assertiveness, academic performance and various components of anxiety in a sample of Mexican high school or secondary students, as well as exploring possible differences related to sex. This study uses two instruments: Children's Assertive Behavior Scale (CABS) and the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale™. The grade point average (GPA) was taken as an indicator of academic performance. The participants were 535 adolescents (54.6 % female, 45.4 % male), with a mean age of13.01 years (std= .74, range 11 to 17 years). Cluster sampling and convenience sampling were used, encompassing all students in the first two grades of a public or state school in the state of Hidalgo. The results indicate sex differences in all study variables. We also found statistically significant correlations between assertiveness and anxiety (r= .182, p <.01), between academic performance and assertiveness (r= -.203, p <.01), and between academic performance and the social concerns component of the anxiety scale (r= -.124, p <.01), although these were low in magnitude.

Resumo As habilidades sociais, em sua forma mais avançada, estão voltadas a resolver problemas imediatos da situação enquanto diminuem a probabilidade de futuros problemas. Isso também é conhecido pelo termo assertividade, variável que pode estabelecer relação com o desempenho acadêmico e com o nível de ansiedade em adolescentes. Esta pesquisa foi descritiva e correlacional, teve como objetivo conhecer a relação entre o nível de assertividade, o desempenho acadêmico e diversos componentes da ansiedade numa amostra de estudantes mexicanos de secundária (equivalente ao ensino médio no Brasil) , bem como explorar possíveis diferenças por sexo. Utilizaram-se dois instrumentos: Escala de Comportamento Assertivo para Crianças e Escala de Ansiedade Manifestada em Crianças (revisada); a média de qualificações foi tomada como indicador de desempenho acadêmico. A amostra foi composta por 535 adolescentes (54.6 % mulheres, 45.4 % homens), com uma média de idade de 13.01 anos (DP =.74, na faixa dos 11 aos 17 anos). A amostra foi por conglomerados e conveniência, abrangendo a totalidade dos estudantes dos primeiros anos escolares de uma escola pública do estado de Hidalgo. Os resultados indicam diferenças por sexo em todas as variáveis de estudo. Também se encontraram correlações estatisticamente significativas: entre assertividade e ansiedade (r=.182, p<.01), entre desempenho acadêmico e assertividade (r= -.203, p<.01), e entre o desempenho acadêmico e o componente preocupações sociais da escala de ansiedade (r= -.124, p<.01), embora estas tenham sido de baixa magnitude.

Resumen Las habilidades sociales, en su forma más avanzada, están dirigidas a resolver problemas inmediatos de la situación, a la vez que minimizan la probabilidad de futuros problemas. Específicamente, la habilidad reconocida como asertividad puede guardar una relación con el rendimiento académico y el nivel de ansiedad en adolescentes. Teniendo esto en cuenta, el objetivo de la presente investigación es conocer la relación entre el nivel de asertividad, el rendimiento académico y diversos componentes de la ansiedad en una muestra de estudiantes mexicanos de secundaria, así como explorar posibles diferencias por sexo. Para esto, se hace un análisis descriptivo y correlacional, donde se utilizan dos instrumentos: la Escala de Conducta Asertiva para Niños y la Escala de Ansiedad Manifiesta en Niños (revisada); además del promedio de calificaciones como indicador del rendimiento académico. Se utilizó una muestra de 535 adolescentes (54.6 % mujeres y 45.4 % hombres), con un promedio de edad de 13.01 años (DE = .74, rango de 11 a 17 años). Se realizó un muestreo por conglomerados y conveniencia, donde se abarcó la totalidad de los alumnos de los dos primeros grados escolares de una escuela pública del Estado de Hidalgo. Los resultados indican diferencias por sexo en todas las variables de estudio y correlaciones estadísticamente significativas entre asertividad y ansiedad (r = .182,p < .01), entre rendimiento académico y asertividad (r = -.203,p < .01), y entre el rendimiento académico y el componente preocupaciones sociales de la escala de ansiedad (r = -.124, p < .01), aunque estas últimas fueron de baja magnitud.

Las estrategias de afrontamiento que utilizan los adolescentes ante situaciones que provocan miedo / Coping strategies assumed by teenagers in situations that cause fear

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar las estrategias de afrontamiento que usan los adolescentes mexicanos ante situaciones que provocan miedo. Método: El tipo de estudio fue no experimental. Los partici pantes fueron 400 adolescentes mexicanos de nivel secundaria (50 % hombres y 50 % mujeres), Media de edad = 13.90 (DE= 0.96). Un instrumento midió la intensidad del miedo ante nueve tipos de situaciones: violencia social, animales, estar solo, médicos, situaciones sociales, lo desco nocido, violencia doméstica, escuela y muerte (a = .93). Por medio de preguntas abiertas se pre guntó a los participantes qué harían ante cada una de las situaciones, lo que permitió identificar el tipo de afrontamiento. Resultados: Las mujeres informaron mayor miedo que los hombres en todas las situaciones, excepto en miedo a la escuela, donde ellas tuvieron mayor puntaje. El patrón general fue que las mujeres usan más estrategias de desahogo emocional y búsqueda de apoyo, mientras que los hombres usan estrategias directas al problema, agresivas y de distracción. En particular, ante el miedo a la muerte, los hombres usan estrategias evitativas, distracción y búsqueda de apoyo, mientras que las mujeres usan estrategias directas al problema, desahogo emocional, búsqueda de apoyo, evitativas, distracción y agresivas. Ante el miedo a lo desconocido, los varones usan estrategias de distracción, agresivas y directas al problema, mientras que las muje res usan desahogo emocional, directo al problema y agresivas. Las estrategias de afrontamiento no son buenas ni malas, su conveniencia depende del apoyo que brindan para resolver la situación que genera miedo.

Abstract Objective: This study aims to identify coping strategies used by Mexican teenagers in situations that elicit fear. Method: This study was non-experimental. The sample consisted of 400 Mexican teenager in secondary level (50 % men and 50 % women) mean age = 13.90 (of= 0.96). Research ers used an instrument to measure the intensity of the fear assumed in nine different types of situations such as: social violence, animals, living alone, doctors, social situations, the unknown, domestic violence, school and death (a =. 93). Through an open-ended question, the participants were asked the following: what would they do in those situations? Allowing them to identify the way they cope with these situations. Results: Women reported greater fear than men in all situ ations except fear of school, where they scored higher. Women generally used more strategies of emotional relief and searching for support while men used aggressive and distraction strategies in relation to those situations. In relation to the fear of death, men assume avoidance strategies, distraction and search for support while women assume direct strategies such as: emotional relief, search for support, avoidance distraction and aggression. In conclusion, coping strategists are not good or bad; it depends on the support given to solve the situation that generates fear.

Escala de Prácticas Parentales para Niños / Escala de Práticas Parentais para Crianças / Parental Practices Scale for Children

Confirmatory factor analysis conducted in a sample of 706 children 7 to 16 years of age, 354 girls and 352 boys, revealed a 5-factor solution (Rejection, Corporal Punishment, Support, Responsiveness, Warmth). Results supported the measurement model of the Parental Practices Scale for Children, which evaluates children's perception of parental practices associated to offspring emotional adjustment. This finding was replicated in a second study (N=233, 126 girls and 107 boys). The measure demonstrated good internal consistency, and was further supported by convergent validity with an instrument built with a similar objective. The measurement model supported by results of both studies is consistent with previous findings.

El análisis factorial confirmatorio realizado en una muestra de 706 niños entre 7 y 16 años, 354 niñas y 352 niños, reveló una solución de 5 factores (Rechazo, Castigo Corporal, Apoyo, Receptividad y Calidez). Los resultados apoyaron el modelo de medida de la Escala de Prácticas Parentales para Niños que evalúa su percepción respecto a dichas prácticas asociadas con el ajuste emocional infantil. Este hallazgo se repitió en un segundo estudio (N=233, 126 niñas y 107 niños). La medida mostró buena coherencia interna, así como validez convergente con un instrumento construido para un objetivo similar. El modelo de medida, apoyado por los resultados de ambos estudios, es coherente con hallazgos previos.

A análise fatorial confirmatória realizada em uma amostra de 706 crianças entre 7 e 16 anos (354 meninas e 352 meninos) revelou uma solução de 5 fatores (Recusa, Castigo Corporal, Apoio, Receptividade e Calidez). Os resultados apoiaram o modelo de medida da Escala de Práticas Parentais para Crianças que avalia sua percepção a respeito dessas práticas associadas ao ajuste emocional infantil. Esta descoberta se repetiu em um segundo estudo (N=233, 126 meninas e 107 meninos). A medida mostrou boa coerência interna, assim como validade convergente com um instrumento construído para um objetivo similar. O modelo de medida, apoiado pelos resultados de ambos os estudos é coerente com descobertas prévias.

Developing an Inventory to Measure Anger in Mexican Children / Desarrollo de un Inventario para la Medición de la Ira en Niños Mexicanos / Desenvolvimento de um Inventário para a Mediação da Ira em Crianças Mexicanas

Based on the state-trait model of anger (Spielberger, 1988, 1999), the aim was to develop a reliable and valid inventory to measure anger in Mexican children. Exploratory factor analyses on responses from 592 children (302 boys, 290 girls) (M=10.35 years old, SD=1.14) revealed four factors suggesting construct validity: 6-item state anger (e.g., "I am upset"), 5-item trait-temperament (e.g., "I get mad easily"), 7-item anger-out (e.g., "I fight with whoever made me mad"), and 12-item anger control (e.g., "I try to relax"). Alpha reliabilities were .76, .76, .73, and .88, respectively. Anger control correlated negatively with other factors, whereas other factors correlated positively with each other. The inventory also had concurrent validity with an instrument that measured physical aggression.

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar un inventario válido y confiable para medir la ira en niños mexicanos, basado en el modelo estado-rasgo (Spielberger, 1988, 1999). Los resultados de análisis factoriales exploratorios de las respuestas de 592 niños, 302 niños y 290 niñas, (M=10.35 años y DE=1.14), revelaron cuatro factores que sugieren validez de constructo: 6 reactivos de ira estado (e. g. "Estoy molesto"), 5 reactivos de temperamento-rasgo (e. g. "Me enojo fácilmente"), 7 reactivos de ira-externa (e. g. "Me peleo con quien me hizo enojar") y 12 reactivos de control de la ira (e. g. "Intento relajarme"). Las confiabilidades alfa fueron .76, .76, .73 y .88, respectivamente. El inventario tuvo validez concurrente con un instrumento que midió agresión física.

Este estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver um inventário válido e confiável para medir a ira em crianças mexicanas, baseado no modelo estado-traço (Spielberger, 1988, 1999). Os resultados de análises fatoriais exploratórias das respostas de 592 crianças, 302 meninos e 290 meninas (M=10.35 anos e DP=1.14), revelaram quatro fatores que sugerem validade de constructo: 6 reativos de ira estado (por exemplo "Estou bravo"); 5 reativos de temperamento-traço (por exemplo "Fico bravo facilmente"); 7 reativos de ira-externa (por exemplo "Eu brigo com quem me faz ficar bravo") e 12 reativos de controle da ira (por exemplo "Tento ficar calmo"). As confiabilidades alfa foram .76, .76, .73 e .88, respectivamente. O inventário teve validade concorrente com um instrumento que mediu agressão física.

Expectativas, percepción del paciente hacia su terapeuta y razones para asistir a dos o más sesiones

resumen está disponible en el texto completo

Summary: In Mexico, patients who seek psychological therapy attend on average only three sessions, which are not enough to truly benefit from therapy One variable that might be related with dropping out is the patient's expectations. When the patient attends the first session and does not find what he expected he might not return for additional sessions. Unfortunately, contradictory evidence prevents us from fully understanding the role of patients' expectations in determining whether patients will attend additional sessions after their first interview. In addition, if the patient perceives unfavorable qualities in his therapist he may choose not to return for more sessions. This was the case in some studies but in some others the patients' perceptions of their therapists' qualities were not useful predictors of which patients would return after the first interview. In any case, every time that a patient does not return without warning his therapist the question may remain: why didn't the patient return? Thus, the aims of this study were: 1. To document the expectations subjects had before their first interview, 2. To identify whether these expectations were met, 3. To determine if there is a relationship between having one's expectations met and attending a second session, 4. To document subjects' reasons for attending two or more sessions, and 5. To compare the perceptions of the therapists' personal qualities among patients who did return or not for a second session. Method. Thirty-nine subjects who attended a psychotherapy session at any time were contacted. The average age was 32.05 years (range from 20 to 63 years), 26 were single and 13 were married. Since this was an exploratory study, an open questions interview was used. Questions included: what expectations did you have before your therapeutic interview? Were your expectations met? Did you return after your first interview? Why did you attend two or more sessions? What qualities did you perceive in your therapist? All of the answers subjects gave were encoded and frequencies were computed. The responses of subjects who attended two or more sessions were compared with answers of subjects who did not. Results. Before the first interview, subjects expected therapists would be attentive, supportive, friendly, and honest. Second, subjects expected concrete results from the first interview: they expected solutions to their problems and doubts, and to feel better in general. They also expected they would be able to confide in their therapists. Last, subjects expected that their pain would be eased, that they would be able to talk about their problems, and that they would not be afraid. When patients' expectations were met they explained that their therapists were attentive listeners. They described their therapists as kind, objective and reliable. They also felt that their therapists were able to help them, often by offering another perspective on their problems. These subjects felt better after the session. On the contrary, when patients' expectations were not met they explained that their therapists did not listen, were critical, acted as if conducting a test, and arrived late to the session. Also, subjects did not feel that they could confide in their therapists and were disappointed that they did not help them to solve their problems. After the first interview, 19 subjects returned for a second session and eight did not. Twelve of these subjects reported having their expectations met on the first interview, while 27 subjects reported that their expectations were not met. Having one's expectations met was significantly correlated with attending a second session (r = +.34, p < .05). The main reasons subjects reported when asked why they attended two or more sessions were the following: I had to continue the treatment, I wanted to feel better, I wanted to overcome my problems, I needed help, I thought the therapist would improve in the next session, and the therapist helped me. Reasons subjects gave for not attending were: the therapist did not listen to me, the therapist was not friendly, I did not like the therapist, the therapist criticized me, I learned that the best way to solve my problems is by my self, the therapy was expensive, I had to study, and I had to work. Subjects who attended a second session perceived more positive qualities in their therapists (e.g. the therapist was kind, reliable, punctual, intelligent, respectful, understanding) than negative (e.g. arrived late, unkind, authoritarian, aggressive, impulsive, incompetent). Subjects who did not attend a second session perceived more negative qualities in their therapists. Finally, those who attended a second session perceived that their therapists were more experienced than subjects who did not attend a second session. Conclusions. Having one's expectations met was significantly correlated with attending a second session, a finding that contradicts other studies. In addition, when patients perceived therapists did not listen to them, they were less likely to attend additional sessions, a finding that is consistent with other research. Finally, also in agreement with other studies, subjects who attended a second session perceived more positive qualities in their therapists than those who did not attend a second session for these perceived more negative qualities in their therapists. One problem that sometimes arises when drop out subjects are interviewed, is that they may lie because they do not want to have any problems with the institution providing them the service or because they do not want to meet their therapists again. However, it is likely that this was not the case for this research. Since interviews were not conducted in a consulting room or a psychological services setting, it is also likely that the "social desirability" was reduced. That is, subjects had the opportunity to speak the truth because the researcher did not know the therapists or institutions they were talking about. One important limitation to this study was that subjects were asked retrospectively about events that took place prior to the interview. So, it is possible that subjects' answers were distorted due to the effect of time on memory. Clearly, more research is needed in prospective studies to explore the relationship between the attendance of more than one session and patient's expectations of therapy sessions and their perceptions about therapists.